Methods and apparatuses for automatic speech recognition

ABSTRACT

Exemplary embodiments of methods and apparatuses for automatic speech recognition are described. First model parameters associated with a first representation of an input signal are generated. The first representation of the input signal is a discrete parameter representation. Second model parameters associated with a second representation of the input signal are generated. The second representation of the input signal includes a continuous parameter representation of residuals of the input signal. The first representation of the input signal includes discrete parameters representing first portions of the input signal. The second representation includes discrete parameters representing second portions of the input signal that are smaller than the first portions. Third model parameters are generated to couple the first representation of the input signal with the second representation of the input signal. The first representation and the second representation of the input signal are mapped into a vector space.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

At least some embodiments of the present invention relate generally to language processing, and more particularly to automatic speech recognition.

BACKGROUND

Speech recognition, generally, is a process of converting an acoustic signal into a linguistic message. Automatic speech recognition is typically cast as an instance of information transmission over a noisy channel, which leads to the adoption of a statistical framework.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a typical automatic speech recognition framework. As shown in FIG. 1, framework 200 includes a speech production side 101 and a speech recognition side 102. W refers to a sequence of words 103 intended to be produced and A refers to an acoustic realization of the word sequence 107. As shown in FIG. 1, the speech production 101 involves determination of the possibility 105 of the acoustic realization 107 based on the intended word sequence 103. Ŵ refers to a recognized sequence of words 113 output to the user. The speech recognition side 102 involves determination of the possibility 111 of the recognized sequence 113 based on the evidence observed 109. Typically, “production” and “recognition” terms are application-specific variants of the usual information-theoretic terminology “encoding” and “decoding.”

As shown in FIG. 1, blocks in framework 200 are assigned a set of parameters of the form Pr(•|•), indicating the possibility of a noisy process characterized by a statistical model. Since the purpose of speech recognition is to recover the word sequence most likely intended by the user, the output sequence Ŵ 113 satisfies the following:

$\begin{matrix} {{\hat{W} = {\arg\limits_{W}\; \max \mspace{14mu} {\Pr \left( {WA} \right)}}},} & (1) \end{matrix}$

where the maximization is done over all possible word sequences in the language. Using Bayes' rate, (1) is typically re-written as:

$\begin{matrix} {{\hat{W} = {\underset{W}{\arg \;}\max \mspace{14mu} {\Pr \left( {AW} \right)}{\Pr (W)}}},} & (2) \end{matrix}$

which has the advantage of decoupling the two main aspects of the process; the acoustic model Pr(A|W) 105, which is in evidence on the speech production (or training) side 101 of FIG. 1, and the language model Pr(W), which simply models the prior probability of the word sequence W in the language. Typically, acoustic and language models are Markovian in nature, and commonly involve hidden Markov model (“HMM”)/n-gram modeling.

In many applications such as automated dictation or compute data entry, it may be critical that the resulting message represent a verbatim transcription of a sequence of spoken words. Typically, a large vocabulary requires state-of-the-art acoustic modeling to use a large number of parameters. For example, while English has less than 50 phonemes (elementary units of sound), acoustic models in state-of-the-art systems commonly comprise tens to hundreds of thousands of parameters, e.g., Gaussian components. Typically, state-of-the-art acoustic models require such high dimensionality because of the extreme variability involved in the acoustic realization of the underlying phoneme sequence. As a result of this over-dimensioning, state-of-the-art acoustic systems consume a large amount of resources, which in turn makes them difficult to deploy on a mobile platform, e.g., the iPhone without compromising recognition accuracy.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

Exemplary embodiments of methods and apparatuses for automatic speech recognition are described. In at least some embodiments, first model parameters associated with a first representation of an input signal are generated. The input signal may be, for example, an acoustic sequence. The first representation may be a discrete parameter representation of the input signal. The discrete parameters may represent portions of the input signal, e.g., phonemes of the acoustic sequence. In one embodiment, first model parameters are generated from first training data. In one embodiment, the first model parameters are generated, based on a phoneme sequence associated with a word sequence. A word sequence can be one or more words.

In at least some embodiments, second model parameters associated with a second representation of the input signal are generated. The second representation can include discrete parameters representing the portions of the input signal that are smaller than the first portions. For example, the second representation may include discrete parameters, e.g., cluster labels that represent sets of frames of the input signal. In one embodiment, second model parameters are generated from second training data. In one embodiment, the second model parameters are generated based on a cluster label sequence associated with a phoneme sequence.

In at least some embodiments, the second model parameters and the first model parameters are generated independently from each other based on different sets of data. In one embodiment, the second representation of the input signal includes a continuous parameter representation of residuals of the input signal. For example, residuals of the input signal may be represented by one or more continuous parameters (e.g., Gaussian distributions).

In at least some embodiments, third model parameters are generated to couple the first representation of the input signal with the second representation of the input signal. In one embodiment, generating the third model parameters involves mapping the first representation and the second representation of the input signal into a vector space. In one embodiment the first, second and third model parameters are created in a process for building an acoustic language model for a speech recognition system, and this acoustic language model can, after it is built, be used in a speech recognition system with or without a conventional language model which assists in the recognition process. The incorporation of both continuous representations (e.g. for residuals in the acoustic model) and discrete representations in the acoustic model can reduce the amount of memory or processing required by the speech recognition system.

In at least some embodiments, portions of an acoustic signal are received in a speech recognition process after an acoustic model has been created. The portions of the acoustic signal may be, for example, frames. A likelihood of a recovered first parameter sequence representing the portions of the acoustic signal can be determined. For example, a likelihood of a recovered cluster label sequence representing a set of frames of the acoustic signal can be determined.

A likelihood of a recovered second parameter sequence associated with the recovered first parameter sequence can be determined. For example, a likelihood of a recovered phoneme parameter sequence associated with the recovered cluster label sequence can be determined. In at least some embodiments, the second parameter sequence represents the portions of the acoustic signal that have a coarser granularity (“greater”) (e.g. greater in time) than the portions of the acoustic signal represented by the first parameter sequence. For example, the portions of the acoustic signal associated with phonemes represented by the phoneme parameter sequence have coarser granularity (e.g. greater in time) than the portions of the acoustic signal associated with the sets of frames represented by the cluster label sequence. The difference in the two portions can be considered to be a difference in granularity or resolution in time.

In at least some embodiments, a joint likelihood of the first parameter sequence and the second parameter sequence associated with a word sequence is determined.

In at least some embodiments, a likelihood of a recovered word sequence is determined based on the recovered second parameter sequence. For example, a likelihood of a recovered word sequence may be determined based an the recovered sequence of phonemes. The recovered word sequence can be outputted.

In at least some embodiments, portions (e.g., frames) of the acoustic signal are represented by first parameters (e.g., cluster labels), wherein a first parameter is associated with a set of the portions. A representative portion of the set of portions may be associated with a first parameter. For example, an average frame of the set of frames of the acoustic signal may be associated with each cluster label. Residuals of the acoustic signal can be computed based on the first parameters.

The residual variations of the portions of the acoustic signal can be computed relative to representative portion associated with a first parameter. For example, residual variations may be determined by subtracting the average frame associated with each cluster label from each frame of the set of frames of the acoustic signal. The residuals of the acoustic signal can be represented by one or more continuous parameters (e.g., Gaussian distributions).

Other features of the present invention will be apparent from the accompanying drawings and from the detailed description which follows.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present invention is illustrated by way or example and not limitation in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a typical automatic speech recognition framework.

FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of one embodiment of a speech recognition system.

FIG. 3 shows a block diagram of one embodiment of a data processing system for automatic speech recognition.

FIG. 4 shows a flowchart of one embodiment of a method to perform automatic speech recognition.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a speech training/production side of an automatic speech recognition framework.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a speech recognition side of an automatic speech recognition framework.

FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of a two-dimensional projection of a feature space represented by continuous parameters of an input acoustic signal.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method to recover a word sequence.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method to provide an intermediate representation of an input acoustic signal.

FIG. 10 illustrates one embodiment of a method to provide residuals of the acoustic signal.

FIG. 11 is a diagram illustrating one embodiment of providing a coarse discrete layer and a detailed discrete layer representing an acoustic signal.

FIG. 12 shows a diagram of one embodiment f clustering frames into sets of frames attached to cluster labels.

FIG. 13 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method of determining a likelihood of a parameter sequence recovered from an observed acoustic evidence.

FIG. 14 shows a diagram 1400 that illustrates a singular value decomposition of a matrix W to construct a vector space.

FIG. 15 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method to recover a second parameter sequence based on a first parameter sequence associated with the input signal.

FIG. 16 shows an overview of one embodiment of a vector space to map parameters representing an input signal.

FIG. 17 illustrates one embodiment of superimposition of a latent perception subspace and a conventional 2-D subspace.

FIG. 18 shows one embodiment of a memory of a data processing system to perform automatic speech recognition.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The embodiments of the invention will be described with references to numerous details set forth below, and the accompanying drawings will illustrate the embodiments of the invention. The following description and drawings are illustrative of the embodiments of the invention and are not to be construed as limiting the invention. Numerous specific details are described to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. However, in certain instances, well known or conventional details are not described in order to not unnecessarily obscure the present invention in detail.

Reference throughout the specification to “one embodiment”, “another embodiment”, or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearance of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.

Exemplary embodiments of methods and apparatuses for automatic speech recognition are described. The embodiments of the invention address a serious bottleneck in large vocabulary continuous speech recognition that is the explosion in the number of parameters necessary for effective acoustic modeling. Variability in the acoustic realization of the underlying phoneme sequence can largely be viewed as an artifact of the speech production apparatus, which in effect transduces a more detailed, yet still fairly low-dimensional, description of the appropriate sound sequence. Thus, exposing this low-dimensional, detailed description enables a large fraction of the variability to be dealt with outside of the continuous parameter Gaussian layer. This provides a rationale for re-formulating the problem in a way that can leverage the resulting dimensionality reduction. The methods and apparatuses for speech recognition described herein, in one embodiment, provide a mathematically coherent way of dimensionality reduction that essentially minimizes both information loss and model mismatch. More specifically, the embodiment of the invention can rely on decoupling of various levels of discrete and continuous representations of the observed speech evidence. Typically, generating a discrete representation of the observed speech evidence involves mapping observations (e.g., measurements) to a finite set of representations (e.g., cluster labels, phonemes, and the like). Generally, the discrete representation of the observed speech evidence includes a finite number of representations associated with the observed speech evidence. Generating a continuous representation typically involves mapping potentially infinite number of observations (e.g., measurements) into a continuous vector space (“feature space”). Generally, the continuous representation of the observed speech evidence includes a potentially infinite number of representations associated with the observed speech evidence.

In at least some embodiments, the ensuing discrete and continuous parameterizations of an acoustic signal are de-coupled using two simple distortion models and a small latent perception model, as described in further detail below. The methods and apparatuses for speech recognition described herein are performed at smaller computational/memory cost than existing solutions, without compromising recognition accuracy. In at least some embodiments, the methods and apparatuses for speech recognition described herein can be efficiently incorporated into resource-limited mobile platforms, e.g., iPhones (or other consumer electronic devices). Generally, the methods and apparatuses described herein can advantageously be applied (may be with slight modifications) to any application involving any noisy patterns, for example, an automatic speech recognition, recovery of biometric data, handwriting recognition, and the like applications.

FIG. 2 shows an embodiment of a speech recognition system 200 including a transducer 201, a signal pre-processor 203, a training/recognition processor 209, one or more acoustic models 211, a lexicon 213, and one or more language models 215. The signal pre-processor 203 includes an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter 205 and a feature extractor 207. As shown in FIG. 2, an acoustic signal is input to the transducer 201, and an output of the transducer 201 is coupled to m input of the A/D converter 205. Transducer 201 may be, for example, a microphone. A corresponding analog electrical signal, output by the transducer 201, is then converted to digital form by the A/D converter 205. The resulting digital speech samples are then processed in successive time intervals within the feature extractor 207, for example, using methods that are known to one of ordinary skill in the art of language processing, to produce acoustic feature vectors. In at least some embodiments, the training/recognition processor 209 receives output from signal pre-processor 203 (e.g., acoustic feature vectors) and based on one or more acoustic models 211, a lexicon 213, a language model 215, one or more distortion models 217, and a perception model 219, and training data, produces a linguistic message output 221, as described in further detail below. Generally, acoustic modeling couples a low level description of speech signal that may be a sequence of frames described by Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) back to a sequence of words. Typically, language modeling can be used to constrain the search space for the acoustic modeling. Conventional language models can be used with the embodiments of the acoustic models described herein.

In at least some embodiments, the training/recognition processor 209 generates sets of model parameters associated with different representations of an input signal independent from each other using distortion models 217 and a perception model 219, as described in further detail below. In at least some embodiments, the set of acoustic models 211 (e.g., Hidden Markov Models), distortion model(s) 217 and a perception model 219 can be used to evaluate the feature vectors output by the feature extractor 207 against basic units of speech, such as phonemes, triphones, or allophones, as described in further detail below. The most likely basic units of speech are then processed, in accordance with information provided by the lexicon 213 and the language model 215 (if used), to generate the final linguistic message output. Generally, the lexicon 213 defines the vocabulary of the recognition system 200 in terms of the basic speech elements (words), and the language model 215 defines allowable sequences of vocabulary items. The language model 215 may be a stochastic language model which provides a set of a priori probabilities, each probability indicating a likelihood that a given word may occur in a particular context. Such a set of a priori probabilities may be used, for example, to help search for and prioritize candidate output messages based on sequences of basic speech elements.

FIG. 3 shows a block diagram 300 of one embodiment of a data processing system for automatic speech recognition. Data processing system 300 includes a processing unit 301 that may include a microprocessor, such as an Intel Pentium ® microprocessor, Motorola Power PC® microprocessor, Intel Core™ Duo processor, AMD Athlon™ processor, AMD Turion™ processor, AMD Sempron™ processor, and any other microprocessor. Processing unit 301 may include a personal computer (PC), such as a Macintosh® (from Apple Inc. of Cupertino, Calif.), Windows®-based PC (from Microsoft Corporation of Redmond, Wash.), or one of a wide variety of hardware platforms that run the UNIX operating system or other operating systems. In one embodiment, processing unit 301 includes a general purpose data processing system based on the PowerPC®, Intel Core™ Duo, AMP Athlon™, AMD Turion™ processor, AMD Sempron™, HP Pavilion™ PC, HP Compaq™ PC, and any other processor families. Processing unit 301 may be a conventional microprocessor such as an Intel Pentium microprocessor or Motorola Power PC microprocessor.

As shown in FIG. 3, memory 303 is coupled to the processing unit 301 by a bus 323, Memory 303 can be dynaamic random access memory (DRAM) and can also include static random access memory (SRAM). A fens 323 couples processing unit 301 to the memory 303 and also to non-volatile storage 309 and to display controller 305 (if a display is used) and to the input/output (I/O) controller(s) 311. Display controller 305 controls in the conventional manner a display on a display device 307 which can be a cathode ray tube (CRT) or liquid crystal display (LCD). The input/output devices 317 can include a keyboard, disk drives, printers, a scanner, a camera, and other input, and output devices, including a mouse or other pointing device. One or more input devices 317, such as a scanner, keyboard, mouse or other pointing device can be used to input a text. The I/O controller 311 is coupled to one or more audio input devices 313, for example, one or more microphones, to receive audio signals.

The display controller 305 and the I/O controller 311 can be implemented with conventional well known technology. As audio output 315, for example, one or more speakers may be coupled to an I/O controller 311 to produce speech. The non-volatile storage 309 is often a magnetic hard disk, an optical disk, or another form of storage for large amounts of data. Some of this data is often written, by a direct memory access process, into memory 404 during execution of software in the data processing system 300. One of skill in the art will immediately recognize that the terms “computer-readable medium” and “machine-readable medium” include any type of storage device that is accessible by the processing unit 301. A data processing system 300 can interface to external systems through a modem or network interface 321. It will be appreciated that the modem or network interface 321 can be considered to be part of the data processing system 300. this interface 321 can be an analog modem, ISDN modern, cable modem, token ring interface, satellite transmission interlace, or other interfaces for coupling a data processing system, to other data processing systems.

It will be appreciated that data processing system 300 is one example of many possible data processing systems which have different architectures. For example, personal computers based on an Intel microprocessor often have multiple bases, one of which can be an input/output (I/O) bas for the peripherals and one that directly connects the processing unit 301 and the memory 303 (often referred to as a memory bus). The buses are connected together through bridge components, that perform any necessary translation due to differing bus protocols.

Network computers are another type of data processing system that can be used with the embodiments of the present invention. Network computers do not usually include a hard disk or other mass storage, and the executable programs are loaded from a network connection into the memory 303 for execution by the processing unit 301. A Web TV system, which is known in the art, is also considered to be a data processing system according to the embodiments of the present invention, but it may lack some of the features shown in FIG. 3, such as certain input or output devices. A typical data processing system will usually include at least a processor, memory, and a bus coupling the memory to the processor. A data processing system that is configured to provide one or more embodiments described herein can be a computer system or a cellular telephone or an entertainment or game system or other consumer electronic devices or an embedded system in a consumer device.

It will also be appreciated that the data processing system 300 can be controlled by operating system software which includes a file management system, such as a disk operating system, which is part of the operating system software. One example of operating system software is the family of operating systems known as Macintosh® Operating System (Mac OS®) or Mac OS X® from apple Inc. of Cupertino, Calif. Another example of operating system software is the family of operating systems known as Windows® from Microsoft Corporation of Redmond Wash., and their associated file management systems. The file management system is typically stored in the non-volatile storage 309 and causes the processing unit 301 to execute the various acts required by the operating system to input and output data and to store data in memory, including storing files on the non-volatile storage 309.

It will be apparent from this description that aspects of the present invention may be embodied, at least in part, in software, e.g., operating system software, and any other application software. That is, the techniques may be carried out in a data processing system or other data processing system in response to its processor, such as a microprocessor, executing sequences of instructions contained in a memory, such as ROM, volatile RAM, non-volatile memory, cache, or a remote storage device.

In various embodiments, hardwired circuitry may be used in combination with software instructions to implement the present invention. Thus, the techniques are not limited to any specific combination of hardware circuitry and software nor to any particular source for the instructions executed by the data recessing system. In addition, throughout this description, various functions and operations am described as being performed by or caused by software code to simplify description. However, those skilled in the art will recognize what is meant by such expressions is that the functions result from execution of the code by a processor, such as the processing unit 105.

A machine readable medium can be used to store soft ware and data which when executed by a data processing system causes the system to perform various methods of the present invention. This executable software and data may be stored in various places including for example ROM, volatile RAM, non-volatile memory, and/or cache. Portions of this software and/or data may fee stored in any one of these storage devices.

Thus, a machine readable medium includes any mechanism that provides (i.e., stores and/or transmits information in a form accessible by a machine (e.g., a computer, network device, cellular phone, personal digital assistant, manufacturing tool, any device with a set of one or more processors, etc.). For example, a machine readable medium includes recordable/non-recordable media (e.g., read only memory (ROM); random access memory (RAM); magnetic disk storage media; optical storage media; flash memory devices; and the like.

The methods of the present invention can be implemented using dedicated hardware (e.g., using Field Programmable Gate Arrays, or Application Specific Integrated Circuit) or shared circuitry (e.g., microprocessors or microcontrollers under control of program instructions stored in a machine readable medium. The methods of the present invention can also be implemented as computer instructions for execution on a data processing system, such as system 300 of FIG. 3.

Many of the methods of the present invention may be performed with a digital processing system, such as a conventional, general-purpose computer system. the computer systems may be, for example, entry-level Mac mini and consumer-level iMac desktop models, the workstation-level Mac Pro tower, the MacBook and MacBook Pro laptop computers, and iPhones produced by Apple Inc., located in Cupertino, Calif. Small systems (e.g. very thin laptop computers) can benefit from the methods described herein. Special purpose computers, which are designed or programmed to perform only one function, or consumer electronic devices, such as a cellular telephone, a digital camera, or an embedded system may also perform the methods described herein.

Generally, depending on the representation chosen for the acoustic signal, two types of acoustic models can be distinguished. Typically, continuous parameter models model speech frames directly, usually with a mixture of continuous Gaussian distributions.

Discrete parameter models typically quantize each speech frame using a codebook, and model the set of cluster labels so obtained with an empirical discrete distribution. The main trade-off involves computational complexity versus accuracy of the representation. Typically, tied mixture systems attempt to bridge the gap between the discrete and continuous types of representation, but by design the mixture and distribution parameters are intended to be trained simultaneously based on the same data.

Once common in the field, discrete parameterizations have fallen out of favor in the past decade, largely due to the loss of information that results from quantization. This loss of information may not be a problem for small-to-medium vocabulary usage such as command and control, but it tends to be deleterious in large vocabulary applications like transcription. On the other hand continuous parameterizations usually suffer from both model mismatch and parameter explosion, as the unknown underlying true distribution may well require a huge number of mixture components before it can satisfactorily be approximated by a Gaussian mixture.

In fact, it is fairly common these days to see large vocabulary recognition systems having tens to hundreds of thousands of Gaussian components. Yet most languages in the world only comprise a relatively small number of distinct, basic units of sound, e.g., phonemes, triphones, and allophones. For example, a typical language rarely requires more than about 100 phonemes and about 2000 allophones. English language, for example, comprises less than 50 phonemes; even when purposely allowing for some redundancy in the alphabet. Japanese language has about 40 phonemes. German language has about 70. At first glance, it therefore appears that common Gaussian parameterizations are grossly over-dimensioned, which in turn places tremendous (and potentially unnecessary) strains on the amount of resources necessary to perform automatic recognition.

The reason for the apparent discrepancy between the small set of underlying phonemes in the language and the large number of Gaussian components ultimately required to model them has to do with the extreme variability involved in the acoustic realization of the intended phoneme sequence. Yet one could argue that this acoustic realization, at some basic level, is but an artifact of the speech production apparatus, which in effect only transduces a more detailed, yet still low-dimensional, description of the appropriate sequence of units to be generated. Exposing this detailed description can therefore enable a large traction of the variability to be dealt with outside of the traditional continuous Gaussian layer, as described in further detail below.

FIG. 4 shows a flowchart of one embodiment of a method to perform automatic speech recognition. Method 400 begins with operation 401 involving generating first model parameters associated with a first representation of an input signal from first training data. An input signal may be, for example, an acoustic sequence. In one embodiment, the first representation is a discrete parameter representation of the input signal. the discrete parameter representation usually means describing an input acoustic signal using a discrete parameter model. The first model parameters can be stored in a memory of a data processing system, e.g., memory 303 depicted in FIG. 3. In one embodiment, the first model parameters are generated based on a phoneme sequence associated with a word sequence. In one embodiment, generating the first model parameters involves training a coarse distortion model based on the training data. In one embodiment, the trained coarse distortion model is applied to an observed acoustic evidence and training data for speech recognition, as described in further detail below.

FIG. 7 illustrates one embodiment of two-dimensional projection 700 of a feature space represented by continuous parameters of an input acoustic signal. Two-dimensional projection 700 includes a feature space 701 of a first phoneme overlapping with a feature space 709 of a second phoneme. As shown in FIG. 7, the first phoneme can be described by a set of statistical distributions of continuous parameters 703. The second phoneme can be described by a set of statistical distributions of continuous parameters 707. The statistical distributions of continuous parameters may be, for example, Gaussian distributions. The continuous parameters may be represented by means and variances of the Gaussian distributions, as known, to one of ordinary skill in the art of language processing. Each point in space 700 can be a representation of a frame of the acoustic signal. Each frame of the acoustic signal may be described by a series of parameters (e.g., 12-39 parameters) collated into a feature vector. The feature vector parameters may be mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (“MFCC”), linear predictive coding (“LPC”) parameters, or any other suitable encoding scheme, as known to one of ordinary skill in the art of language processing. As shown in FIG. 7, a feature space representing overlapping 705 of two phonemes may he described by a set of statistical distributions of continuous parameters 711. As shown in FIG. 7, continuous parameters representation of the acoustic evidence requires adding more continuous parameters for more accurate recognition of an audio signal. For example, state-of-the art speech recognition systems may include from the hundreds of thousands to millions of continuous parameters.

In one embodiment, an input acoustic signal represented by discrete parameters is modeled separately from residuals of the input acoustic signal represented by a reduced continuous parameters layer (e.g., a reduced Gaussian layer), as described in further detail below.

This provides a rationale for introducing an explicit representation for this discrete detailed description, in such a way that the mapping from phonemes to this additional discrete layer can absorb most of the presumed degrees of freedom available. This in turn can amount to setting up both discrete and continuous kinds of parameterizations simultaneously, albeit in two separate layers, and training them separately, in a decoupled manner, possibly with different data. This can re-formulate the problem, so as to seize the opportunity to leverage dimensionality reduction, in order to effectively minimize both information loss and model mismatch.

FIG. 10 illustrates one embodiment to provide residuals of the acoustic signal. FIG. 10 depicts power or amplitude of acoustic signal versus frequency. As shown in FIG. 10, a waveform 1003 of the acoustic signal is different from a waveform 1004 of the acoustic signal. Waveforms 1003 and 1004 may represent the acoustic signal associated with the same word sequence. In one embodiment, waveforms 1003 and 1004 having dynamic range of variations 1011 are represented by a mean waveform 1005 (dashed line). As shown in FIG. 10, mean waveform 1005 may encode generic (e.g., predictable) variations of the original waveforms 1003 and 1004. As shown in FIG. 10, residual variations 1009 and 1010 obtained by subtracting mean waveform 1005 from waveforms 1003 and 1004 vary around zero mean. Residual variations 1009 and 1010 have substantially smaller dynamic range of variations 1008 than dynamic range 1011. Therefore, the residual variations of the acoustic signal, such as residual variations 1009 and 1010 can be described by a substantially smaller number of continuous parameters than each of the waveforms 1003 and 1004. In one embodiment, mean waveform 1005 may represent a detailed, yet still low-dimensional description of the acoustic signal. In one embodiment, a mean waveform 1005 having dynamic variability range 1011 is described by a set of discrete parameters, and residual variations 1009 and 1010 of the waveforms 1003 and 1004 around zero mean are described by a reduced set of continuous parameters. In one embodiment, the reduced set of the continuous parameters describing the residual variations of the acoustic signal contains about 500-2000 parameters. In one embodiment, a residual variability of the acoustic evidence can be modeled with a reduced set of the continuous parameters (e.g., Gaussians) by a continuous parameter representation and a systemic (generic) variability associated with speech production and any other predictable variability is removed from the continuous parameter representation and is modeled with a set of discrete (more detailed) parameters, such as cluster label parameters. That is, the acoustic model describing the acoustic sequence can be reduced from the millions of parameters down to 500-2000 parameters that significantly increase efficiency without reducing the accuracy of the speech recognition.

Referring back to FIG. 4, method 400 continues with operation 402 involving generating second model parameters associated with a second representation of the input signal from second training data. In one embodiment, the second training data that are fed to a data processing system to generate second model parameters are different from the first training data that are fed to the data processing system to generate the first model parameters. In one embodiment, the second representation includes a second discrete parameter representation of the input signal and a continuous parameter representation of residuals of the input signal, as described in further detail herein. The second model parameters can be stored in a memory of a data processing system. e.g., memory 303. In one embodiment, the second model parameters are generated based on a cluster label sequence associated with a word sequence. In one embodiment, generating the second model parameters involves training a detailed distortion model based on the second training data. In one embodiment, the trained detailed distortion model is applied to an observed acoustic evidence and training data for speech recognition, as described in further detail below.

In one embodiment, the first representation of the input acoustic signal includes discrete parameters representing first portions of the input acoustic signal, and the second representation of the input acoustic signal includes discrete parameters representing second portions of the input signal. In one embodiment, the first portions of the acoustic signal and the second portions of the acoustic signal are provided simultaneously, and the second portions of the acoustic signal have finer granularity (“smaller”) than the first portions of the acoustic signal. For example, the first portions of the input acoustic signal may be associated with phonemes, and the second portions may be associated with sets of frames of the input acoustic signal. In one embodiment, the second portions of the acoustic signal represented by the first parameter representation are greater than a frame of the input acoustic signal.

At operation 403, third model parameters can be generated to couple the first representation and the second representation of the input acoustic signal from third training data. The third model parameters can be stored in a memory of a data processing system, e.g., memory 303. In one embodiment, the first model parameters, the second model parameters, and the third model parameters are generated in a de-coupled manner, independent from each other. That is, the first model parameters, the second model parameters, and the third model parameters can be generated in different time based on different sets of data. In one embodiment, the first model parameters, the second model parameters, and the third model parameters are generated in the same time independently from each other based on the different sets of data. That is, sets of data fed into a data processing system to train each of the first model parameters, second model parameters, and the third model parameters can be different from each other.

In one embodiment, generating the third model parameters includes mapping the first representation and the second representation into a vector space, as described in further detail below. In one embodiment, generating the first model parameters includes training a first distortion model based on the first training data, generating the second model parameters includes training a second distortion model based on the second training data, and generating the third model parameters includes training a latent perception model based on the third training data, as described in further detail below.

In one embodiment, generating the first model parameters associated with a first representation of the input acoustic signal includes determining a likelihood (e.g., a conditional probability) of a phoneme sequence associated with a word sequence. That is, a corpus of the first model parameters may include one or more phoneme sequences associated with one or more word sequences. In one embodiment, generating the second model parameters includes determining a likelihood of a cluster label sequence derived from the phoneme sequence that is associated with the word sequence. That is, a corpus of the second model parameters may include one or more cluster label sequences derived from the corresponding phoneme sequences. In one embodiment, a likelihood of the produced acoustic evidence is determined based on one or mom cluster label sequences.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a speech training/production side of an automatic speech recognition framework. As shown in FIG. 5, W refers to a sequence of words 501 intended to be produced. A refers to an acoustic realization of the word sequence 513 (“acoustic evidence produced”), P refers to an ideal phoneme sequence 505 associated with the intended word sequence 501, and C refers to an ideal discrete, low-dimensional cluster label sequence 509 derived from phoneme sequence 505. As shown in FIG. 5, the speech training/production 500 involves determination of the likelihood (e.g., a conditional probability) 503 of the ideal phoneme sequence 505 based on the intended word sequence 501, determination of the likelihood of the an ideal discrete, low-dimensional cluster label sequence 509 based on phoneme sequence 505, and determination of the likelihood 511 of the acoustic evidence produced 513 based on cluster label sequence 509 derived from phoneme sequence 505.

Referring back to FIG. 4, method 400 continues with operation 404 that involves receiving an input signal. The input signal may be, for example, an acoustic sequence. At operation 405 the received input signal is sampled into portions. For example, the input signal, e.g., an acoustic evidence may be samples into frames. Each frame can have the duration, for example, in the approximate range of 10 milliseconds(“ms”) to 30 ms in duration. In one embodiment, the duration of each frame of the acoustic evidence is about 10 ms. At operation 406 a likelihood of a recovered first parameter sequence is determined based on the portions of the captured input signal and the second model parameters. For example, a likelihood of a recovered cluster label sequence can be computed based on the sets of frames of the acoustic evidence and the cluster labels derived from the second training data.

At operation 407 a likelihood of a recovered second parameter sequence is determined based on the recovered first parameter sequence and the first model parameters. For example, a likelihood of a recovered phoneme sequence can be computed based on the recovered cluster label sequence and the phoneme sequence model parameters. At operation 408 a recovered third sequence is determined based on the second recovered sequence. For example, a likelihood of a recovered word sequence can be computed based on the recovered phoneme sequence. Operations 406-408 are described in further detail below.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of one embodiment of a speech recognition side 600 of an automatic speech recognition framework. As shown in FIG. 6, Ŵ refers to a recognized sequence of words 613 output to the user, A refers to an acoustic evidence produced 601, D refers to a cluster label sequence 605 recovered front the observed acoustic evidence 601, and Q refers to a recovered phoneme sequence 609 associated with the recovered cluster label sequent 605.

As shown in FIG. 6, the speech recognition side 600 involves determination of the likelihood (e.g., a conditional probability) 603 of the recovered cluster label sequence 607 based on the acoustic evidence produced 601, determination of the likelihood 607 of the recovered phoneme sequence 609 based on cluster label sequence 605. and determination of the likelihood 611 of the recognized word sequence 613 based on phoneme sequence 609 associated with the recovered cluster label sequence 605.

As shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, the automatic speech recognition framework establishes a formal relationship between C and D, two discrete representations of the acoustic evidence, and A, now assumed to be a continuous representation of that evidence. However, contrary to typical usage in discrete HMM parameterizations, in one embodiment sequence length for labels and frames can be different (i.e., they do not have to be equal in length.

In one embodiment, a cluster label represents a set of frames of the input signal. In one embodiment, a cluster label represents a portion of the acoustic evidence having a duration in time longer than the duration in time of a frame of the acoustic evidence and shorter than the duration in time of a phoneme associated with the acoustic evidence. For example, in one embodiment a cluster label may represent a portion of the acoustic evidence having the duration longer than about 10 ms and shorter than about 250 ms. In one embodiment, a phoneme parameter represents a portion of the acoustic evidence having a duration equal to the duration of a phoneme. For example, a phoneme parameter may represent a portion of the acoustic evidence having the duration of about 250 ms.

The embodiment of the framework depicted in FIGS. 5 and 6 exhibits two major differences compared to that of FIG. 1: (i) it explicitly introduces a phoneme recognition stage in the formulation, and (ii) it decouples the two types of acoustic model parameterizations. These (i) and (ii) aspects have a major role to play in dimensionality reduction. They are also instrumental in the concepts of latent perception and distortion modeling, as described in further detail below.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method to recover a word sequence. Method 800 begins with operation 801 involving receiving portions of an acoustic signal. In one embodiment, the portions of the acoustic signal are associated with frames. At operation 802 a likelihood of a recovered first parameter sequence representing the first portions of the acoustic signal is determined. The likelihood of the recovered first parameter sequence may be determined based an observed first parameter sequence. In one embodiment, the likelihood of the recovered first parameter sequence is determined based on a distortion model for the first parameters. For example, the likelihood of a recovered cluster label sequence representing sets of frames of the acoustic signal can be computed based on applying a detailed distortion model to the observed cluster label sequence associated with an acoustic evidence. For example, a word sequence “did you” may be realized with a “D” followed by a “y”, or it may be realized with a “D” followed by a “J”. That may result into two slightly different cluster label sequences distorted from a cluster label sequence associated with the observed acoustic evidence. The detailed distortion model for the cluster labels can be applied to the observed acoustic evidence to determine the recovered cluster label sequence, as described in further detail below.

At operation 803 a likelihood of a recovered second parameter sequence associated with the recovered first parameter sequence is determined, wherein the second parameter sequence represents second portions of the acoustic signal that are greater in time than the first portions. The likelihood of the recovered second parameter sequence may be determined based on an observed second parameter sequence. For example, the likelihood of a recovered phoneme sequence associated with the recovered cluster label sequence can be computed based on applying a coarse distortion model to the observed phoneme sequence, as described in further detail below. In one embodiment, the durations of the portions of the acoustic signal associated with the cluster labels are smaller than the durations of the portions of the acoustic signal associated with phonemes, as described above.

In one embodiment, determining the likelihood of the recovered second parameter sequence includes mapping the recovered first parameter sequence tot he recovered second parameter sequence. For example, determining the likelihood of the recovered phoneme sequence includes mapping the recovered cluster label sequence to the recovered phoneme sequence, as described in further detail below.

In one embodiment, the recovered second parameter sequence includes a discrete parameter representation of the acoustic signal; and the recovered first parameter sequence includes a continuous parameter representation of residuals of the acoustic signal. In one embodiment, the recovered phoneme sequence includes a representation of the acoustic signal by discrete phoneme parameters, and the recovered cluster label sequence includes a representation of the acoustic signal by discrete cluster label parameters and a representation of residuals of the acoustic signal by a reduced set of continuous parameters, as described in further detail below.

In one embodiment, a likelihood of a continuous parameter representation of the residuals of the acoustic signal is determined based on the observed first parameter sequence. For example, a likelihood of a continuous parameter representation of the residual variations of the frames of the acoustic signal can be computed based on an observed cluster label sequence, as described further detail below.

At operation 804 a joint likelihood of the recovered first parameter sequence and the recovered second parameter sequence is determined. For example, the joint likelihood of the recovered cluster label sequence and the recovered phoneme sequence can be computed using a perception model, as described in further detail below. At operation 805 a likelihood of a recovered word sequence is determined based on the recovered second parameter sequence. For example, the likelihood of a recovered word sequence can be computed based on the recovered phoneme sequence, as described in further detail below. At operation 806 a recovered word sequence can be provided to an output device, e.g., a display, printer, and the like.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method 900 to provide an intermediate representation of an input acoustic signal. At operation 901 portions of the acoustic signal are represented by cluster labels. In one embodiment, a cluster label represents a portion of the acoustic signal that is longer than duration of a frame, and shorter than the duration of a phoneme associated with the acoustic evidence. In one embodiment, each cluster label represents a set of frames of the acoustic signal.

FIG. 11 is a diagram illustrating one embodiment of providing a coarse discrete layer and a detailed discrete layer representing an acoustic signal. Diagram 1100 includes a word layer containing words 1101 (e.g. “Did you”), a phoneme layer containing phonemes 1103 (e.g., “d” and “y”), a cluster label layer having cluster labels 1105 (e.g., d₁, d₁, d₂, d₃, . . . , d₁, d_(j2), d_(j3), y₁, y₂, ya₁). As shown in FIG. 11, each cluster label represents a set of frames 1107 of the acoustic signal. Each frame of the acoustic signal, e.g., frame 1109, cam be described by a set of feature vector parameters, e.g., MFCCs. Each frame of the acoustic signal may have in one embodiment duration of about 10 ms. A number of frames represented by each cluster label can vary depending on an acoustic sequence. For example, as shown in FIG. 11, cluster label “ya₁” may represent 5 frames, cluster label “y₂” may represent 2 frames, cluster label “y₁” may represent 3 frames. That is, millions of frames of the acoustic sequence may be clustered into about 500-2000 cluster.

In one embodiment, each of the cluster label layer 1105 and phoneme layer 1103 is a discrete parameter layer. Cluster label layer 1105 containing, for example, 500-2000 clusters of frames can describe the acoustic sequence in more detail than phoneme layer 1103 containing, for example, about 40-100 phonemes.

As shown in FIG. 11, cluster label layer 1105 is an intermediate discrete parameter layer between the phoneme layer 1103 and frames 1107 of the acoustic signal. In one embodiment, cluster label layer 1105 and phoneme layer 1103 are trained independently from each other. For example, cluster label layer 1105 is trained based on a set of data that is different from the set of data that is fed to train the phoneme layer 1103. As shown in FIG. 11, the cluster label layer 1105 can be coupled to the phoneme 1103 by using a latent perception mapping 1111. That is, the system does not have a priori idea how many cluster labels to assign to a phoneme. In one embodiment, mapping from a phoneme layer 1103 to cluster label layer 1105 is performed to determine how may cluster labels are to assign to a phoneme, as described in further detail below.

FIG. 12 shows a diagram of one embodiment of clustering frames into sets of frames attached to cluster labels. As shown in FIG. 12, two dimensional projection of a feature vector space 1201 contains vectors, such as a vector 1203, describing the frames of the acoustic sequence. As shown in FIG. 12, regions 1205, 1207, 1209, 1211, and 1213 associated with sets of frames are attached to cluster labels CL1, CL2, CL3, CL4, and CL5 respectively. A region of feature vector space 1201 represented by a cluster label can vary depending on a realization of the acoustic sequence. For example, cluster label CL1 may represent region 1207 associated with 3 frames, duster label CL5 may represent region 1211 associated with one frame, and cluster label CL4 may represent region 1209 associated with frames from regions 1207 and 1213.

Referring back to FIG. 9, method 900 continues with operation 902 that involves determining a portion of the acoustic signal associated with a cluster label. For example, a mean (e.g., average) frame of the set of frames associated with a duster label can he computed. At operation 903 residuals for each of the portions of the acoustic signal can be computed based on the portion associated with each cluster label. For example, residual variations of the frames of the acoustic signal can be computed by subtracting a mean frame associated with a cluster label from each frame of the set of frames. At operation 904, the residuals of the portions of the acoustic signal are represented by a reduced set of continuous parameters (e.g., model parameters, such as Gaussian distributions, and the like). For example, the residual variations of the frames (“residual frames”) of the acoustic signal can be represented (e.g., modeled) by a reduced set of Gaussian distributions to minimize the loss of information associated with discrete parameterization of the acoustic signal. That is, the continuous representation of the residuals of the acoustic signal can be determined based on the discrete parameters describing the acoustic signal(e.g., cluster labels). More specifically, a cluster label is used for discrete modeling and the average frame of the cluster of frames is used to compute the residuals of the acoustic signal.

In one embodiment, the discrete cluster label representation is closer to the perception of the waveform of the acoustic signal than the phoneme representation, because it takes into account a predictable variability associated with a context of the word sentence and inherently encodes some of variability in duration when a word sentence is produced. In one embodiment, the predictable variability and duration of the acoustic signal are described by a discrete parameter modeling while residual variations of the acoustic signal are described with a continuous parameter modeling using, for example, HMMs.

FIG. 13 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method to determine a likelihood of a parameter sequence recovered from an observed acoustic evidence. In one embodiment, the likelihood of the recovered second parameter sequence is determined using a distortion model. Method 1300 begins with operation 1301 involving receiving a recovered parameter sequence associated with an input signal. The input signal may be, e.g., an observed acoustic evidence. In one embodiment, the recovered parameter sequence is a cluster label sequence associated with an acoustic sequence.

In another embodiment, the recovered parameter sequence is a phoneme sequence associated with an acoustic sequence. At operation 1302 the recovered parameter sequence is: matched with a parameter sequence associated with a word sequence derived from training data. In one embodiment, the recovered cluster label sequence is matched with a cluster label sequence derived from the cluster label training data corpus.

In another embodiment, the recovered phoneme sequence is matched with a phoneme sequence associated with a word sequence derived from the phoneme training data corpus. At operation 1303 the parameter sequence is selected based on the matching. At operation 1304 it is determined whether there are more recovered parameter sequences to receive. If there are more recovered parameter sequences to receive, method 1300 returns to operation 1301. If there are no more parameter sequences to receive, method 1300 ends.

Formulation

The following discussion provides an example of an embodiment expressed mathematically.

As a preamble, note that on the production side both word-to-phoneme and phoneme-to-cluster label conversions are deterministic for a given intended word sequence and a given codebook design. In other words:

$\begin{matrix} {{\Pr \left( {{C.P}W} \right)} = \left( \begin{matrix} {1,{{{if}\mspace{14mu} P} = {{P_{w}\mspace{14mu} {and}\mspace{14mu} C} = C_{w}}}} \\ {0,{otherwise}} \end{matrix} \right.} & (3) \end{matrix}$

where PW and CW refer to the (unique) phoneme and cluster label sequences associated with the intended word sequence W (assuming sufficient context to disambiguate between occasional oddities like, say, the-present tense and past tense forms of “read”).

Using this identity arid elementary probability theory, the first factor in (2) can then be expanded as:

$\begin{matrix} {{\Pr \left( {AW} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{Q}{\sum\limits_{D}{\sum\limits_{P}{\sum\limits_{C}{\Pr \left( {A,D,Q,C,{PW}} \right)}}}}}} & (4) \\ {= {\sum\limits_{Q}{\sum\limits_{D}{\sum\limits_{P}{\sum\limits_{C}{{\Pr \left( {A,D,{QC},P,W} \right)}{\Pr \left( {C,{PW}} \right)}}}}}}} & (5) \\ {= {\sum\limits_{Q}{\sum\limits_{D}{\Pr\left( {A,D,{Q{Cw}},{Pw},W} \right.}}}} & (6) \\ {= {\sum\limits_{Q}{\sum\limits_{D}{\Pr \left( {A,D,{Q{Cw}},{Pw}} \right)}}}} & (7) \end{matrix}$

where the summations over Q, D, P, and C range over all of the possible respective sequences that can be generated in the language, the transition from (5) to (6) follows trivially fern (3), and the last equality reflects the fact that conditioning on the word sequence is essentially redundant given knowledge of the (ideal) sub-word sequences PW and CW.

Continuing to expand Pr(A,D,Q|CW,PW), we can further write:

$\begin{matrix} {{\Pr \left( {A,D,{QC_{W}},P_{W}} \right)} = {{\Pr \left( {{AD},Q,C_{W},P_{W}} \right)}{\Pr \left( {D,{Q{C_{W}P_{W}}}} \right)}}} & (8) \\ {= {{\Pr \left( {{AID},Q,C_{W},P_{W}} \right)}\frac{\Pr \left( {D,Q,{C_{W}P_{W}}} \right)}{\Pr \left( {C_{W}P_{W}} \right)}}} & (9) \\ {= {{\Pr \left( {{AID},Q,C_{W},P_{W}} \right)}\frac{\begin{matrix} {\Pr \left( {{DC_{W}},Q,P_{W}} \right)\Pr} \\ {\left( {{C_{W}Q},P_{W}} \right){\Pr \left( {QP_{W}} \right)}} \end{matrix}}{\Pr \left( {C_{W}P_{W}} \right)}}} & (10) \\ {= {{\Pr \left( {{AID},Q,C_{W},P_{W}} \right)}{\Pr \left( {{DC_{W}},Q,P_{W}} \right)}\frac{{PR}\left( {C_{W},{P_{W}Q}} \right)}{\Pr \left( {C_{W},P_{W}} \right)}{\Pr \left( {QP_{W}} \right)}}} & (11) \end{matrix}$

It is worth remarking that, so far, no approximation has been involved in the above derivation. In order to keep the problem tractable, however, at this point we can invoke some assumptions. We will go through three approximations in turn and discuss why they might he justified.

The first approximation is:

$\begin{matrix} {{\Pr \left( {{AID},Q,{CW},{PW}} \right)} \approx {{PR}\left( {{AID},{CW}} \right)}} & (12) \\ {{\approx {\Pr \left( {A{CW}} \right)}},} & (13) \end{matrix}$

where (12) simply reflects the decoupling between the two kinds of parameterizations that we have postulated earlier, mailing the acoustic realization dependent only on the detailed layer of representation, and (13) underscores the likely precedence of the intended over the recognized sequence when it comes to acoustic realization. This reasoning is in line with the type of acoustic modeling assumptions typically made at the word level.

The second approximation is similarly linked to the decoupling invoked earlier:

Pr(D|CW,Q,PW)≈Pr(D|CW).   (14)

With this assumption, we argue that the recognized label sequence is likely to depend more on its intended version than on what happens at the phoneme level, which implies that distortions introduced at one level are independent from distortions introduced at the other. This may not be strictly true, since labels will typically be constrained by phonemes, but can be relatively reasonable under a scenario where training of the two models is sufficiently decoupled.

The third approximation allows us to quantify the amount of coupling remaining. Clearly, if the two levels were indeed independent, then Pr(CW,PW|Q) would reduce to Pr (CW,PW) in (11), and the numerator and denominator would both simplify to the product Pr(CW)Pr(PW). In general, this is not the case, however, which means that these terms do not cancel out. We capture this coupling through a parameter δ defined as:

Pr(CW,PW|Q)≈[Pr(CW,PW)]^(1+δ),   (15)

where δ=0 corresponds to independence, and increasing departure from zero reflects a greater coupling between the two levels of description. The value of δ is normally set using empirical observation. That is, the coupling between the cluster label layer and a phoneme layer can be data driven and controlled through value of δ.

In addition to (13)-(15), we can also invoke the Viterbi approximation, as is commonly done in order to turn summations into maximums in expressions like (7). With these simplifying assumptions, (2), together with (7) and (11), can be expanded as:

$\begin{matrix} {\hat{W} = {\arg \mspace{14mu} {\max\limits_{W}\mspace{14mu} {\max\limits_{Q}\mspace{14mu} {\max\limits_{D}\mspace{14mu} {{\Pr \left( {AC_{W}} \right)}{{\Pr \left( {DC_{W}} \right)}\left\lbrack {\Pr \left( {C_{W},P_{W}} \right)} \right\rbrack}^{\delta}{\Pr \left( {QP_{W}} \right)}{\Pr (W)}}}}}}} & (16) \\ {= {\arg \; \max \mspace{14mu} {\Pr \left( {A\backslash {CW}} \right)}{\underset{D}{\left\lbrack {\max \; {\Pr \left( {DC_{W}} \right)}} \right\rbrack}\left\lbrack {{\Pr\left( {C_{W},P_{W}} \right\rbrack}^{\delta}\underset{Q}{\left\lbrack {\max \; {\Pr \left( {QP_{W}} \right)}} \right\rbrack {\Pr (W)}}} \right.}}} & (17) \end{matrix}$

This formulation comprises five distinct factors, which we now discuss. P(W) is the same entity appearing n (2), and can be computed using a standard statistical language model such as a (word) n-gram. As for Pr(A|W), it is structurally similar to Pr(A|W) in (2), and can in general come from the same type of HMM acoustic model. However, this acoustic model is now driven by a detailed discrete representation (rather than words), which is presumably a lot more conducive to a compact implementation (since a large fraction of the underlying variability in the production process has already been systematically codified).

The remaining three factors in the middle of (17) are a direct consequence of the problem reformulation adopted in FIG. 2. We refer to [max_(Q) Pr(Q|Pw)] and [max_(D)Pr(D|CW)] as distortion factors, since they reflect the errors introduced in the discrete phoneme and cluster label sequences, respectively. They can therefore be computed using separately trained phoneme and cluster label distortion models. The entity Pr(CW,PW)^(δ), as mentioned before, reflects the level of coupling between the two levels of discrete description (phonemes and cluster labels). Since this coupling directly imparts how the coarse representation (phonemes) is realized as a detailed representation (cluster labels), we refer to this factor as the perception factor, computed, logically enough, using a perception model.

The formulation (17) thus suggests a novel strategy for speech recognition, which can now be performed by training an acoustic model and a language model as before, plus two distortion mode is and a perception model. Since the acoustic and language models are well-established, the following concentrates on the distortion and perception models.

Distortion Models

Neglecting the size of the underlying symbol alphabet, the two distortion models behave in a similar way, as in each case the goal is to compute a quantity of the form Pr(S|T). For the coarse distortion model (phonemes), training data can be generated from the application of a standard phoneme recognizer to the training corpus. Similarly for the detailed distortion model (cluster label), except that this generation now involves an expanded symbol inventory. The following considers generic training applicable to both models.

Several approaches are available for this training. One solution is to cast this task as a dynamic programming problem. Let us assume that the sequence T comprises the K symbols φ1 . . . φk . . . φK. In general the recovered realization S will comprise L similar symbols ψ1 . . . ψl . . . ψL where L is expected to be close, but perhaps not equal, to K. Because of the potential length mismatch, the alignment of S against T should have provisions for the existence of gaps in the alignment. Denote by A(k,l) the best (minimum cost) alignment between and φ1φ2 . . . φk and ψ1 ψ2 . . . ψl. If C(k,l) is the cost of substituting character ψl for character φk, g(i,k) the cost of a gap φi . . . φk in the first string, and h(j,l) the cost of a gap ψ_(j) . . . ψl in the second string, the basic dynamic programming recursion can be written:

$\begin{matrix} {{{A\left( {k,} \right)} = {\min \left\{ {{{A\left( {{k - 1},{ - 1}} \right)} + {C\left( {k,} \right)}},{G\left( {k,} \right)},{H\left( {k,} \right)}} \right\}}},{{where}\text{:}}} & (18) \\ {\underset{0 \leq i \leq {k - 1}}{{G\left( {k,} \right)} = {\min \mspace{14mu} \left\{ {{A\left( {i,} \right)} + {g\left( {i,k} \right)}} \right\}}},} & (19) \\ {\underset{0 \leq j \leq { - 1}}{{H\left( {k,} \right)} = {\min \mspace{14mu} \left\{ {{A\left( {k,j} \right)} + {h\left( {j,} \right)}} \right\}}},} & (20) \end{matrix}$

with initial conditions A(k,0)=h(0,k), 1≦k≦K and A(0,l)=g(0,l), 1≦l≦L.

If the gap penalties g•and h(•) are identical, and calibrated to equal the Euclidean distance between two phonemes that are suitably far apart, then the overall alignment cost A(K,L) can be viewed as the cumulative distance between s and t trajectories in the underlying vector space. As the associated norm in turn induces an exponential distribution on the space, in order to obtain the probability Pr(S|T) it is sufficient to consider:

$\begin{matrix} {{\Pr \left( {ST} \right)} = \frac{\exp \left\{ {- {A\left( {K,L} \right)}} \right\}}{\sum\limits_{T}{\exp \left\{ {- {A\left( {K,L} \right)}} \right\}}}} & (21) \end{matrix}$

where the denominator acts as the appropriate normalization factor. In practice this factor need not be computed over all possible (phoneme or cluster label) sequences, which may be impractical, but can be estimated using only the top Ω most relevant candidates, as the influence of the rest is typically too small to matter. The value of Ω is normally found via empirical observation.

Alternatively, one could adopt a CRF (Conditional Random Field) framework and model the conditional probability Pr(S|T) directly. In this case, in its simplest expression the distribution at each state s_(i) has the form:

Pr s_(i)(s_(i)+1|t_(i))=Pr(s_(i)+1|s_(i)+1,t_(i))   (22)

which represent the probability of moving from state si to state si+1 on observation ti. Each state-observation transition function is usually expressed as a log-linear model:

$\begin{matrix} {{\Pr \mspace{14mu} {s_{i}\left( {{s_{i} + 1}t_{i}} \right)}} = {\frac{1}{z\left( {S,T} \right)}{\exp \left\lbrack {\sum{\lambda_{k}{f_{k}\left( {s,\ldots \mspace{14mu},t_{i}} \right)}}} \right\rbrack}}} & (23) \end{matrix}$

where f_(k)(•,•) is a feature function of the current observation and a potential next state, λ_(k) is a parameter to be estimated, and Z(S,T) is a normalization factor. Each feature function expresses some characteristic of the empirical training distribution, which is deemed important to require of the trained model as well. The difficulty, of course, is to come op with satisfactory feature functions. In the present situation, these feature functions would reflect observed distortions in the respective sequences under consideration.

Perception Model

Neglecting the parameter δ, the goal of the perception model is to characterize the entity Pr(C_(W),P_(W)), or, said another way, to quantify the joint probability distribution governing how the course representation (e.g., phonemes) is realized as a detailed representation (e.g., cluster labels). Compared to the usual approach to acoustic modeling, this is where the new formulation offers the greatest opportunity for dimensionality reduction. To leverage this opportunity, we exploit the latent semantic mapping (LSM) framework. The LSM framework was described in J. r. Bellegarda, “Latent Semantic Mapping” Signal Proc. Magazine, Special Issue Speech Technol. Syst. Human Machine Communication, L. Deng, K. Wang, and W. Chou, Eds., Vol. 22, No. 5. pp. 70-80, September 2005. Hence the terminology used herein is “latent perception modeling”.

FIG. 14 shows a diagram 1400 that illustrates a singular value decomposition of a matrix W to construct a vector space, such as vector space 1605 depicted in FIG. 16 according to one embodiment of invention. Let M, |M|=M, and N, |N|=N, denote the set of distinct phonemes and cluster labels, respectively. From the training data, we first construct an (M×N) phoneme-label matrix W 1401 where each entry w_(ij) corresponds to the number of times label J was seen in phoneme i. We then proceed to perform a singular value decomposition (“SVD”) of W as follows:

W≈Ŵ=USV^(T)   (24)

where U is the (M×R) left singular matrix 1403 of vectors u_(i) (1≦i≦M), S is the (R×R) diagonal matrix 1405 of singular values, V is the (N×R) right singular matrix 1407 of vectors v_(j) (1≦j≦N), R<M(<N) is the order of the decomposition, and ^(T) denotes matrix transposition. The ith vector u_(i) can be viewed as the (scaled) representation of phoneme i in the vector space of dimension R spanned by the singular vectors. similarly, the jth vector vj can be viewed as the (scaled) representation of label j in the same R-dimensional vector space. We refer to this space as the “latent perception space”. Reasonable values of R are 10 to 20 in one embodiment, which entails a considerable dimensionality reduction compared to conventional continuous parameter modeling.

The basic idea behind (24) is that Ŵ captures the major associational structure in W and ignores higher order effects. As a result, the position of vectors in the space is determined by the overall coupling between M and N, as opposed to any particular characteristic explicitly tied to the underlying acoustic realizations (such as specific spectral features). In particular, this means that two phonemes whose realizations are acoustically confusable could still be “far apart” in that space if that is otherwise consistent with the major patterns observed in the corpus (e.g., if they involve sufficiently distinct detailed realizations). This has the important benefit of alleviating the effects of speech production artifacts.

Once the space is constructed and the various entities mapped to it, the coupling between phoneme i (mapped to u_(j)S^(1/2)) and label j (mapped to v_(j)S^(1/2)) can be characterized via the usual LSM closeness measure:

$\begin{matrix} {{{K\left( {i,j} \right)} = {{\cos \left( {{u_{i}S^{1\text{/}2}},{v_{j}S^{1\text{/}2}}} \right)} = \frac{uiSvjT}{{{u_{i}S^{1\text{/}2}}}{{v_{j}S^{1\text{/}2}}}}}},} & (25) \end{matrix}$

which is readily obtained from Ŵ. In a manner similar to the one seen in the previous section, it is then possible to turn this measure into a joint probability P(i,j), and, accumulating over all phonemes in PW and cluster labels in CW, to deduce the overall quantity Pr(CW,PW). This is turn quantifier the coupling between coarse and detailed representations, given the latent perception space obtained.

FIG. 15 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method to recover a second parameter sequence based on a first parameter sequence associated with the input signal. Method 1500 begins with operation 1501 that involves receiving a first discrete parameter associated with a first representation of an input signal. In one embodiment, first representation is a coarse representation of the input signal. In one embodiment, the first discrete parameter is a phoneme parameter associated with an input acoustic sequence.

At operation 1502 the first parameter is mapped into a vector space having second parameters associated with a second discrete representation of an input signal. In one embodiment, the second representation includes a more detailed discrete representation of the input signal than the first representation. For example, the second parameters can be cluster labels associated with the input acoustic sequence.

FIG. 16 shows an overview 1600 of one embodiment of a vector space to map parameters representing an input signal. As shown in FIG. 16, first parameters 1601 (e.g., associated with phonemes) and second parameters 1603 (e.g., cluster labels) are mapped into a vector space 1605. In one embodiment, first parameters 1601 represent phonemes (denoted by circles in vector space 1605), and second parameters 1603 represent cluster labels (denoted by crosses in vector space 1605). In one embodiment, vector space 1605 is a latent perception space. As shown in FIG. 16, mapping of the first parameters representing phonemes and the second parameters representing cluster labels into a vector space 1605 is a global mapping.

Referring back to FIG. 15, at operation 1503 it is determined whether a distance between a second parameter and a first parameter in a vector space is smaller than a predetermined threshold. If the distance is not smaller than a predetermined threshold, the first parameter is selected at operation 1506. If the distance is not smaller than the predetermined threshold, the second parameter is disregarded at operation 1505.

As shown in FIG. 15, if a distance 1607 between parameter 1611 and parameter 1612 is greater than a predetermined threshold, the parameter 1611 is disregarded. If a distance 1609 between parameter 1612 and parameter 1613 is less than a predetermined threshold, parameter 1613 is selected for a recovered second parameter sequence. For example, if a distance between a phoneme parameter and a cluster label parameter in the vector space is less than a predetermined threshold, the phoneme parameter can be selected for a recovered phoneme sequence. If a distance between the phoneme parameter and the cluster label parameter in the vector space is greater than a predetermined threshold, the phoneme parameter is disregarded in one embodiment.

Referring back to FIG. 15, at operation 1507 it is determined whether more first parameters are to be received. If there are more first parameters, the method returns to operation 1502. If there are no more first parameters, a recovered first parameter sequence associated with a recovered second parameter sequence is outputted.

To illustrate the potential benefits brought about by the latent perception approach described above, preliminary experiments using data from a subset of the “Alex” concatenative voice released as past of MacOS X Leopard were conducted. Specifically, a sequence of 107,717 phonemes drawn from a set of M=55 distinct phonemes were considered, and for this coarse sequence produced a suitable detailed representation drawn from a set of N=220 cluster labels. We then formed the associated (55×220) perception matrix W and processed it as in (24).

We set the dimension of the resulting latent perception space to 10, and looked at the representation of each phoneme in the 2-D subspace of this space obtained by retaining the two most salient dimensions. In parallel, we also considered the original (60-dimensional) feature space originally used to represent the acoustical realizations of the phonemes, and looked at the representation of each phoneme in the 2-D subspace of this space also obtained by retaining the two most salient dimensions. The two 2-D subspaces are superimposed in FIG. 17. Circles mark the phoneme positions after latent perception processing, while triangles mark the (original) phoneme positions obtained with conventional processing.

Everything else being equal, phonemes are much more spread out in the latent perception space than in the original space. In fact, some latent perception phonemes could not even be drawn on FIG. 17, as they fall outside the borders of the plot. In contrast, due to its reliance on features tied to acoustic realization, conventional processing yields phonemes that are seemingly more confusable with one another. This suggests a greater degree of separation in the latent perception space (e.g., a distance 1615 between two phonemes in vector space 1605 depicted in FIG. 16) that provides potentially better discrimination and higher recognition accuracy than conventional processing.

FIG. 1B shows one embodiment 1800 of a memory of a data processing system to perform automatic speech recognition. the memory may be a memory 303 depicted in FIG. 3. As shown in FIG. 18, memory 303 includes in one embodiment training data 1803 including training data for continuous parameter layer for residuals 1804, training data for cluster label layer 1805, training data for phoneme layer 1806, and training data for a word layer 1807. Memory 1801 further includes feature vector parameters 1801, distortion models 1809 and 1810, a perception model 1811, training instructions 812, one or more acoustic models 1813, one or more language models 1814, analog-to-digital transformation instructions, and speech recognition instructions 1802. Memory may also include word agglomeration instructions (not shown), semantic classification instructions (not shown), and semantic anchors (not shown).

In the foregoing specification, embodiments of the invention have been described with reference to specific exemplary embodiments thereof. It will be evident that various modifications may be made thereto without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the invention. The specification and drawings are, accordingly, to be regarded in an illustrative sense rather than a restrictive sense. 

1-67. (canceled)
 68. A method, comprising: at an electronic device: generating first model parameters associated with a first representation of an input signal, the first representation being a discrete parameter representation; generating second model parameters associated with a second representation of the input signal, the second representation including a continuous parameter representation of residuals of the input signal; generating third model parameters to couple the first representation with the second representation; and storing the first model parameters, the second model parameters, and the third model parameters.
 69. The method of claim 68, wherein generating the third model parameters includes mapping the first representation and the second representation into a vector space.
 70. The method of claim 68, wherein the first representation includes discrete parameters representing first portions of the input signal, and the second representation includes discrete parameters representing second portions of the input signal that have a finer granularity than the first portions.
 71. The method of claim 68, wherein generating the first model parameters includes training a first distortion model based on first training data.
 72. The method of claim 68, wherein generating the second model parameters includes training a second distortion model based on second training data.
 73. The method of claim 68, wherein generating the third model parameters includes training a latent perception model based on third training data.
 74. The method of claim 68, wherein the first model parameters are generated based on a phoneme sequence associated with a word sequence.
 75. The method of claim 68, wherein the second model parameters are generated based on a cluster label sequence associated with a phoneme sequence.
 76. The method of claim 68, further comprising: producing acoustic evidence based on the second model parameters.
 77. The method of claim 68, further comprising: receiving the second portions of the input signal; determining a recovered first parameter sequence based on the second portions and the second model parameters; determining a recovered second parameter sequence based on the recovered first parameter sequence and the first model parameters; and determining a recovered word sequence based on the recovered second parameter sequence.
 78. A non-transitory machine-readable storage medium storing instructions, which when executed by one or more processors of an electronic device, cause the electronic device to: generate first model parameters associated with a first representation of an input signal, the first representation being a discrete parameter representation; generate second model parameters associated with a second representation of the input signal, the second representation including a continuous parameter representation of residuals of the input signal; generate third model parameters to couple the first representation with the second representation; and store the first model parameters, the second model parameters, and the third model parameters.
 79. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein generating the third model parameters includes mapping the first representation and the second representation into a vector space.
 80. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein the first representation includes discrete parameters representing first portions of the input signal, and the second representation includes discrete parameters representing second portions of the input signal that have a finer granularity than the first portions.
 81. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein generating the first model parameters includes training a first distortion model based on first training data.
 82. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein generating the second model parameters includes training a second distortion model based on second training data.
 83. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein generating the third model parameters includes training a latent perception model based on third training data.
 84. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein the first model parameters are generated based on a phoneme sequence associated with a word sequence.
 85. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein the second model parameters are generated based on a cluster label sequence associated with a phoneme sequence.
 86. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein the instructions further cause the electronic device to: produce acoustic evidence based on the second model parameters.
 87. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 78, wherein the instructions further cause the electronic device to: receive the second portions of the input signal; determine a recovered first parameter sequence based on the second portions and the second model parameters; determine a recovered second parameter sequence based on the recovered first parameter sequence and the first model parameters; and determine a recovered word sequence based on the recovered second parameter sequence.
 88. A device comprising: one or more processors; memory; and one or more programs stored in memory, the one or more programs including instructions for: generating first model parameters associated with a first representation of an input signal, the first representation being a discrete parameter representation; generating second model parameters associated with a second representation of the input signal, the second representation including a continuous parameter representation of residuals of the input signal; generating third model parameters to couple the first representation with the second representation; and storing the first model parameters, the second model parameters, and the third model parameters.
 89. The device of claim 88, wherein generating the third model parameters includes mapping the first representation and the second representation into a vector space.
 90. The device of claim 88, wherein the first representation includes discrete parameters representing first portions of the input signal, and the second representation includes discrete parameters representing second portions of the input signal that have a finer granularity than the first portions.
 91. The device of claim 88, wherein generating the first model parameters includes training a first distortion model based on first training data.
 92. The device of claim 88, wherein generating the second model parameters includes training a second distortion model based on second training data.
 93. The device of claim 88, wherein generating the third model parameters includes training a latent perception model based on third training data.
 94. The device of claim 88, wherein the first model parameters are generated based on a phoneme sequence associated with a word sequence.
 95. The device of claim 88, wherein the second model parameters are generated based on a cluster label sequence associated with a phoneme sequence.
 96. The device of claim 88, wherein the one or more processors further include instructions for: producing acoustic evidence based on the second model parameters.
 97. The device of claim 88, wherein the one or more processors further include instructions for: receiving the second portions of the input signal; determining a recovered first parameter sequence based on the second portions and the second model parameters; determining a recovered second parameter sequence based on the recovered first parameter sequence and the first model parameters; and determining a recovered word sequence based on the recovered second parameter sequence. 